A World of Darkness: thoughts on the enlightenment

A World of Darkness

Colton Clay

"It will be different from all the other kingdoms and will devour the whole earth, trampling it down and crushing it." Daniel 7:23 NIV

How do we know? How do we know if we are awake or dreaming? Could it be that we are within someone else's dream? These are just some of the questions which define the science of epistemology, a science which came of age during the enlightenment and gave birth to the world we know today. “Like the Renaissance, the Enlightenment was an all-encompassing trend of thought that is very hard to define.”¹ This paper will look at the effect an epistemological shift, expressed by the enlightenment, had upon the church and the cultural shifts that followed. While it could be defined in many ways, one important characteristic of the enlightenment was that it caused people to look at the world with new eyes- the eyes of reason, not those of faith.² Ideas once born give birth to civilizations. As Luther’s awakening to “the just shall live by faith,” eventually gave birth to the reformation; Descartes cogito ergo sum gives birth to western secularization.³

Distant Cousins Twice Removed.

The enlightenment may appear to be the ante-reformation, but upon a closer inspection, the two shared several similarities. During the reformation a similar question had been asked in regards to the foundation of truth, “did its finality reside in the bible or in the Church?” By asking the question “what path do we take to arrive at an agreed upon Theology” the Reformers prepared the ground for the enlightenment.⁴ The primary thinkers of the enlightenment can be compared to the reformation. The reformation was at its core a question of hermeneutics, a study of how we derive God’s will or truth, just as the enlightenment begins with the question “how do we know”. The Reformation was spawned from new developments and new curiosities in historical knowledge. Humanists such as Erasmus sparked renewed interest in antiquity which in time prepares the ground that gives rise to the Reformation. Its thinkers and reformers are empowered by the new technology of Gutenberg’s press. The Enlightenment thinkers are equally stirred by the radical changes in society that heretofore question the foundation of established belief systems. Just as a great number of the ideas present in the Reformation were promoted to advance political transformation, so to the likes of the “grub street hacks” make use of the enlightenment to rail against unearned privilege of the monarchy. Later the ideologies of the reformation and enlightenment work their way into all western forms government, occasionally as is the case of Thomas Jefferson it is even by the same pen. Both are stirred by a desire to find absolutes and both leave lasting legacies on almost all areas of western civilization. As the Reformers uphold the scripture as the source of unwavering truth, the enlightenment puts its faith in mathematics principles. Three diverging movements begin to take shape; for Roman Catholics a person need only to look to the church to find the answers, for the Reformers; sola scriptura and for the children of the enlightened age, it would become man’s own ability to reason. A legacy that has remained to this day even becoming the praxeology in many modern churches who give lip service to the theology of sola scriptura.

At the core of cogito ergo sum Descartes tastes the fruit of original sin, “you shall be like God, knowing right from wrong.” While he believed himself to be within the framework of the Catholic church, his methodology of knowledge is in many ways the seed that impregnates the world with an idea that will give birth to Daniels fourth kingdom.⁵ 
It was not Descartes alone any more than Luther single handily formed the Reformation, but his epistemology would become the source of transformation that would spark the resulting change, just as Luther’s ninety-five thesis unwittingly set so much in motion before. Newton and Locke would also have key roles to play in displacing the bible and divine revelations with mathematical principles and man’s ability to reason and experience his world. ⁶ Prior to this cultural shift the interest of Christianity and the interest of European civilization were regard as to expression of the same reality. Once the Enlightenment gave birth to secularization coupled with the dechristianization effects of the French Revolution, temporal realities began to displace Christian realities as the center of European loyalty, preoccupation and civilization.⁷

As the two began to separate in an on again off again relationship, much like, an afternoon soap opera the church found itself in unfamiliar territory. While the Christian worldview too this day holds a strong sway on culture and civilization, one would have to go back to pre-Edict of Milan to find the church occupying such a place in society as it does today. All of this is a direct result of the enlightenment's impact on western civilization. At the founding of universities, the likes of Oxford and Cambridge the study of the theology held the highest place among academia, she was the “Queen of the Sciences!” Within one hundred years after the birth of the enlightenment the Queen found she needed to justify her place at the table. For quite some time to follow, all humanities would take a back seat to the mathematical disciplines.

"Get Back to Where You First Belonged"

It could be said that all of this worked to push the church back where it belonged. For years prior to the events of the enlightenment the church was not only comfortable with the powers that be far to often it occupied that very position, to the neglect of commoner.⁸ Failing to grasp the appreciation Jesus had for the discarded outcast of this world the historical leaders of Christianity have often mislead themselves to place undue importance on political power. Forgetting their Kings own words, “At that time Jesus declared, "I thank you, Father, Lord of heaven and earth, that you have hidden these things from the wise and understanding and revealed them to little children” Matthew 11: 25 NIV A characteristic not confined to Christ’s first disciples, as Paul would later point out, “brothers not many of you were wise according to worldly standards, not many were powerful, not many were of noble birth.” I Corinthians 1:26 NIV The key point here being, according to worldly standards, those standards where changed by the Christianization of Rome. For ten centuries to follow, the church enjoyed a position of prominence in the minds of the west and subsequently spent less time concerned with the hearts and minds of those to whom the faith was first received. Far too comfortable with the wise and powerful decedents of noble birth, it was fitting that commoners in France would rise and dethrone the monarchy and take the church down for good measure. Christendom has taken a blow over the past three hundred years, as it’s position in society has been far less assured.

“The work of historians like Gibbon was showing that Christian doctrine had not been laid down in some once-for-all divine moment and that it was not all clearly there in the Bible, which is what people tended to assume. It was now becoming clear that Christian doctrine had developed gradually over a period of centuries. So why on earth should anyone believe it?”⁹

With the limitations of human logic and experience firmly grounded at the center of truth and discovery, Christian thought faced and continues to face an unprecedented challenge. This ostracizing of theology does not imply the church was not filled with wisdom and higher education - far from it. The Church has continued to be infused with the wisest of educators and greatest of minds to grace this world. While Comte, Darwin, Marx, Nietzsche and Freud where helping to secularize the western world, Kierkegaard, Hodge, Stuart, and Payne where formulating the diverging path of Christendom.¹⁰ Expulsion from the elite boded well for the church in many areas as she spread her reach into the highways and byways of not only west but all the world. “While Matthew Arnold's “sea of faith” may have been receding in Europe, even an outgoing tide could remain a vigorous force.”¹¹ Christianity once again, after many long years, gives adherents little in the way of social clout and mobility in European culture. While here in America a piece of the old Constantine guard still longs to make a bed in Babylon, it is only within her own house that the Queen is honored. The cost of this cultural shift will be great and the price is still uncertain. However, the opportunity that stands before the church today is nothing short of glorious. Now once again by going “outside the gate” to be with her betrothed the church may be renewed to reflect who she truly is. While many went kicking and screaming, and some still are, it is only outside of Babylon that the church will once again become a city on a hillside shining a light unto this darkened world.

1 Johathan Hill (2003). The History of Christian Thought. Downers Grove Ill. Inter-Varsity Press. 217.

2 Hill. 217.

3 This was never the intention of Descartes, he believed his ideas to work in conjunction with the Christian faith. But, as history has often shown Ideas have a life of their own.

4 In many ways they share the same principle trust in human ability, consider this observation of historian Mark A. Noll “The authority of human conscience had been proclaimed over against the authority of the church councils, in the contradiction to the weight of tradition, and in the very face of the emperor himself. Even though Luther spoke of his conscience as bound by Scripture, he had introduced, with moving power, a new principle of authority.” Mark A. Noll (2000). Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity: Baker Academic 156. Once ambiguity arises in regards to the interpretation of the bible, the principle sources of truth in the equation remains human conscience. The enlightenment simply replaces the bible with mathematical principles, but remains rooted in mans ability to reason.

5 Daniels fourth kingdom is like no other combined with the beast of Revelation gives the impression that this is kingdom finds highest forms in man, humanism carried to its logical conclusion.

6 Justo L. Gonzalez (2010). The Story of Christianity. New York, Ny.: Harper Collins. 240.

7 Noll. 251, 253.

8 Theology and the Church can and does offer the surest of foundations for society. But, often when given the chance to lead, embraced the same corrupting forces as any other.

9 Hill. 219, 220.

10 This list is merely a representation of contemporaries to the previous list. A full list would undoubtedly be much longer.

11 Noll. 261

The Love of God

The Christian World View Part 2

Setting the Captives Free: Individuals who Worked in the name of Christ for Justice Among the Indigenous Peoples in the Americas. - by Colton Clay

     To better our understanding of the multitude of Christians who worked for justice among the indigenous people in the Americas, it is necessary to discuss some common pitfalls when critiquing this era of history.  It is easy to make the mistake of evaluating historical events and people based on the ideology and ethics of the present day.  Recently I challenged a hermeneutics class at our local church to evaluate the life of Mattathias, father of Judas of Maccabees, in the light of his culture and times.  It was astonishing to hear that the overwhelming majority of the participants interpreted Mattathias in the light of not only the New Testament but even modern ethics as well.  If we are to have any chance of truly understanding Mattathias, it is imperative to keep in mind that neither the NT or its profound effects on ethics were formulated or present in Mattathias culture.

     This rule of historical interpretation holds true for anyone and is widely accepted when considering “ancient” figures and events.  However, often when events are closer to our own time period or within the general framework of our culture, people become woefully lax in upholding these important principles.  

     The same exegetical flaw which impaired my students’ understanding of Mattathias has today become the bedrock of false attitudes toward interpreting European Christendom as it ventured into the Americas.  Rather than making the similar mistake for this essay and expecting sixteenth century explorers to comprehend justice and equality in the light of modern ethics, I propose we should instead be encouraged by the foresight of those who could see the light of a more fully developed Christian ethic during such a comparatively different era.

     We should also recognize that this was the time determined by God in the unfolding of His glorious plan, that by means of social upheaval and unprecedented global change He would awaken a new chapter of human freedom.  First, two words of caution: it would behoove us to take pains in avoiding our current culture’s tendency to revisionist history, idealizing pre-Christian civilizations as naive utopias cannibalized by western imperialism.  However, while the results would one day be far superior to path on which they had been, we should avoid romanticizing all of the activities of colonization thereby ignoring blatant and damaging atrocities made under Christian banners.  Both of these mistakes have hampered the recent generation’s ability to gain from the rich lessons available to them when there is a balanced appreciation due this era of history.    

     Because I see it at work and even flowering in the lives of those who by word, deed, and prayer made an inroad to the Kingdom of God, I am obliged to make mention of the theology that in Jesus’ teaching there is the seed of the Kingdom of God.  A view that in Christ an ideological seed was planted, the grain that feel to the ground, of societal reform that would lead to a kingdom of justice in which among other things, the meek shall inherit the earth.  From the life, death and resurrection of Jesus flows more than eternal salvation but also a new concept of humanity is found that will in time usher in the new Kingdom of Justice.  With the early pronouncement of this Kingdom that is within us, with us, and coming, Jesus gave birth to a vision of society described by the prophet Isaiah and heralded by Christ himself in Luke 4. 

     Regardless of our view concerning this progressive social change sparked by the life and teachings of Jesus, it can well be said that it is a matter of historical fact that progressive freedom and justice has followed the expansion of Christianity throughout the world.  If this is a matter whereby one can understand and interpret biblical kingdom prophecy or simply a matter of the residual effect of the faith is debatable.

     Either way, it is the convergence of cultural clashes with Christian ideology that make for the calls of equality, fairness and justice in sixteenth century Americas.  This was not the first time.  Case in point, once the good news of Christ had reached northern Europe, it had a radical effect upon the barbaric societies the faith encountered there. The Christian concepts of love and justice continued to reform and reshape those society, so that by the time of the European discovery of the Americas, the European empire of Christendom itself was in the throes of social, ethical and theological change which would continue a steady march to the creation of the free societies we know today.  Under the banner of Christianity those same societies would eventually, even if by force, reach out and affect the barbaric cultures of the Americas the same and possibly more effectively than in Europe centuries earlier. We would err, as many habitually do, if we forget the brutality of the Incas, Mayans or Aztec empires prior to invasion of Spanish Catholicism in this region. 

     It is also noteworthy that, for someone to assume that all the activities of the European conquerors centered entirely on missional ideology would be equivalent to interpreting all modern U.S. Middle Eastern policy to center entirely around a humanitarian effort.  Simply put, there was substantial wealth to be made in the Americas, or at the very least the promise thereof. It is better to understand the full spectrum of thought present in the mix:  it was, after all, a mad dash for money, land and power.  For many people, this was not counterintuitive to the Christianizing of the indigenous people.  The Spanish, who where conquering, viewed society to be a creation of providence: a God given and natural order to societal structure.  With this mentality their advancements give them reason to believe they have a providential right to rule. They are not being harsh or barbaric in the activities.  It is their understanding that they are following the structure inherent within God’s created system.  It could be logically assumed to them, that because they possessed both the means and foresight to occupy these lands, it was subsequently their right and calling to do so.  They would be improving the current civilization, advancing their empire which was synonymous with Christianity, and bringing the knowledge of salvation to the indigenous people in the process.  Several of these points cannot and should not be argued with, but as with so many things “the devil is in the details”. 

     It is within and truly apart of this system that Bartolome de las Casas first arrives in the Americas, not to save its inhabitants from Spanish rule but to reach them with the Catholic faith. However, with activist such as Bartolome de las Casas, combined with bold proclamations like the Sublimus Dei and the prophetic preaching of Friar Antón Montesino, a new chapter in human dignity and Kingdom ethics was breaking upon history. 

     The first question is when attempting to understand Bartolome de las Casas, who in many ways embodies the entire defense of dignity on behalf of the Americans, would be:  what prompted this change of heart?  I believe when we understand this change of heart, we gain insight into all of Christ’s servants who did not ask that the Americas not be Christianized but that they be Christianized by the true spirit of Christianity itself and not the overwhelming power of the Western Empires.  It brought to memory a personal epiphany concerning one’s accepted view of the world.  I grew up in the South, educated by and large within the public school system thereof.  It never dawned on me that my view and understanding of both the cause and characters of the Civil War where inherently biased.

     Later in life, I ventured into the northern Midwest and began to perceive an alternative view.  It was not that I was unaware that my education had been biased by my geography; it was simply a matter of having never been challenged to question those thoughts.  They had been shared by so many that they where interwoven into the fabric. Together we had all agreed and, therefore, there was nothing to question.  So it was with Bartolome de las Casas.  When he arrives in the Americas, de las Casas is himself a holder of Indians and property.  However, in time, having been transposed from the fabric of the familiar where injustice can be easily hide within comfort of the mundane, Bartolome and others began to wrestle with ethical challenges that lay before them.

     Friar Antón Montesino fired the first shot by recognizing the conflict between the praxis and law in his magnificently bold sermon: “With What Right?”  Soon, others would follow, and a lively, important debate had begun.  Bolstered by the remarkably insightful Pope Paul III, passionate monks and priest across the Americas offered debate in the matter of justice and equality on behalf of the indigenous people.  What is encouraging when considering the impact of the Christian faith is its effects and safeguards it soon worked to impose for the natives.  This was a lively debate within the community: that without the work of Christians the desires for conquest would have run roughshod over entire populations.  Often, modern critics levy undue criticisms upon Christianity without critiquing the true motivation of the economic expansion.  It is true that on every side of the discussion people took up the name of Christ.  However, where would any indigenous person find a voice of compassion outside of Christianity?  Without the call for universal brotherhood and love for one’s neighbor, empires would still advance, the weaker nations would be conquered, slavery would remain a mainstay of society.  What the faith offered, which was on bold display during this time, was lively social debate about morality and justice that continues to this day to work its way into the fabric of our cultures.  Bartolome de las Casas and his Dominican brothers stirred up the hearts and minds of people with truth and love and bravely did their part in obedience to Christ.  Their words still resonate today as the work of justice continues, especially in South America among Catholic theologians. 

     I believe it is important that Christians today work toward a balanced view of history. One that understands the ways that Christianity has been both abused and misunderstood by those who laid claim to it, while not forgetting the incredible contributions Christianity has made to the world.  We are facing a generation both within and without the church that has retreated from the social success and contributions that Christianity has had and made in favor of an unbalanced focus on its failures.  We must continue to remember the men and women who worked for justice in the name of Jesus for all people lest we forget and, in turn, fail to hold onto the liberties their work has afforded us. 

HIS 800 AGTS 

Notes: 

¹ I do not wish to imply that modern ethics are superior to the Apostolic writers. However, when we consider the surrounding culture, I believe ours has had the benefit of having had time to intertwine and digest the NT writings, thus benefiting from them in ways time had not allowed their contemporaries. 

² I do not think “ours” i.e. modern Christendom, is fully developed. I had originally used the word “dark” in lieu of “different”, however, upon further meditation concluded different to be a better understanding factoring areas where we may have digressed. 

³ The difference has major implications for either pre-dispensation or liberation theology. 

⁴ These views were not racist.  That would have been too blatant not to recognize.  They simply highlighted the events and main characters from a southern perspective.